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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
From Rousseau’s rural utopia to the latest Earth Day
activities, it is clear that
mankind is
working toward achieving a better understanding of his relationship with
nature.
This
concern can be seen in various architectural practices: Frank Lloyd Wright’s
organic
architecture
shows the ecological principles of building designs that are integrated with
the
site and
local materials. Similarly, the geologically striated mass and irregularly
contoured
walls of
Alvar Aalto’s villa designs reflect his concern of human activities to conform
with
the
intrinsic nature of the site and the modification of the environment.
In addition to these
attempts in
architectural practices, systematic and integrated examination also leads to
new
ecological
movements and disciplines. In the mid-nineteenth century, landscape
architecture
became a
new branch of architecture; it re-discovered the value of nature, and tried to
focus
on the
visual, psychological, and spiritual influences of the natural environment. Unlike
building
design, landscape architecture design focuses upon planning the entire
arrangement
of a site,
including the location of buildings, grading, stormwater management,
construction,
and
planting.
Both
landscape architects and architects are involved in site analysis, while urban
design or
land development addresses a larger scale, such as cities and regions. Building
sites are
the smallest units in a broad range of spatial scales. Although buildings are
the
primary
focal point for architectural design, their relationship to sites and other
structures
should also
be a concern. Thus, many professions are engaged in site analysis and planning
process.
Current curricula of architectural schools and organizational structures of the
building
industry suggest that there are at least five important components in the
design
process:
aesthetic concerns, culture, environment,
structure and materials, and economics and
social/political
influence. These components are also applicable to the site analysis process.
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To
ascertain the value of site analysis, it is necessary to consider several
definitions.
Most
definitions divide the process into various steps. Some specify the steps
practically,
from site
selection to building location, and to utility placement (Figure 1-1a). Others
consider it
as a “systematic, and often iterative, sequence of steps” (LaGro, 2001). These
steps
include site selection, inventory, analysis, concept development, and design
implementation
(Figure 1-1b). Figure 1-1c shows Lynch’s definition. He notes that site
planning as
the art of
arranging the external physical environment
to support human behavior. It
lies along
the boundaries of architecture, engineering, landscape architecture, and city
planning,
and it is practiced by members of all these professions. Site plans locate
structures
and activities in three-dimensional space and, when appropriate, in time
(Lynch,
1971, p.1).
Figure
1-1 Three different definitions of site analysis
Theoretical
discussions about the site analysis process are also implemented into
design
practices and the development of computer tools. McHarg (1969) established
Time
Locate
buildings
Place
utilities
3-dimension
+
Select a
site
Site
Analysis
Concept
Development
&
Design
Implementation
Inventory
Site
Selection
&
Programming
(a)
practical steps
(b)
LaGro’s definition
(c)
Lynch’s definition
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guidelines
for choosing sites for urban development in various geographic locations,
especially
in metropolitan areas. Using mapping and measurement techniques, he identified
eight
natural processes related to land use. The basic information includes data on
climate,
geology,
physiography, hydrology, pedology, vegetation, wildlife habitats, and land use.
Then, after
establishing a quantification system to interpret the data, he mapped the
relevant
factors to
show the results. Landscape architects and architects widely used McHarg’s
methods,
which are also shown in state-of-the-art computer mapping tools (Chapter 4).
A large
number of systems have been developed to analyze building sites and
buildings.
These often focus on the environment; more
specifically, they introduce, promote,
and guide
the principles of sustainability. One good example is the Leadership in Energy
and
Environmental
Design (LEED) rating system promoted by the US Green Building Council
(USGBC).
The LEED uses prerequisites and a performance-based credit system tailored to
individual
regions, site locations, and building types. When rating the sustainable sites,
there
are eight
credit sections: “site selection, urban redevelopment, brownfield
redevelopment,
alternative
transportation, reduced site disturbance, stormwater management, landscape and
exterior
design to reduce heat islands, and light pollution reduction.”
1
Similar
analysis tools
for smaller
residential buildings are also available and can be referenced on the
Department
of Energy
(DOE) website.
Other group
of tools is based on geographic information systems (GIS). For example,
Scenario Constructor
in CommunityViz
2
can model
several options for a proposed building
project at
different locations. It offers quantitative impact analysis capabilities and
performs
a “spatial
spreadsheet” with numerical computations on geographic data in real time. It
also
allows the
project team to sketch alternative land-use scenarios and evaluate their
implications
for the community objectives and constraints (Chapter 4).
1.1
Limitations
of Existing Methods and Tools
However,
the methods and tools for analysis as described above suffer from several
limitations.
Today’s architectural design process involves many participants, including
1
More
information can be found at the US Green Building Council website:
http://www.usgbc.org.
2
For more
information, please check the website of CommunityViz at
http://www.communityviz.com.
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architects,
engineers, governmental agencies, developers, clients, and the general public.
The
information
and knowledge involved in this process have become increasingly complex, and
have a
wider spectrum. Thus, integrated systems and effective management methods
within
a guided
framework are urgently needed. For designers, this requirement not only
suggests
buildings
as integrated systems, but also leads to an extended design process, starting
with
site
selection and evaluation. A similar paradigm shift has already happened in the
broader
field of
environmental planning. Both the Ecosystems Approach and Landscape Ecology
models
signify the advancement from a general systems ecological framework. These are
two
examples of the recent integration of natural, physical, and biological
dimensions with
historical,
cultural, and socioeconomic aspects. However, the integration of different
analysis
tools in
the design process in general, and in site analysis and selection in
particular, does not
have a
specific formulation.
The
comprehensive connection between different design stages is also hard to
achieve
in terms of
using computer tools. A wide range of professionals, technicians, and builders
participate
in the development process over time. Professionals contribute to the project
based on
their own expertise, but often fail to communicate and coordinate with others.
Therefore,
their mismatched computer data formats and terminology become problematic.
It is also
hard to find a tool based on existing projects that has been proven useful
over time.
The situation is severe for problems and issues that relate to social and
cultural
factors,
because these issues are complex and difficult to analyze using computer
programs.
The
uniqueness of particular projects also makes developing a general computer
program
even more
challenging. Almost all tools only “support” site selection; they do not make
final
decisions
for users. With the development of high-speed and high capacity computers,
modern
expert systems may use knowledge modules and inference engines to account for
both human
activity and natural process models, and support complex decision-making (Brail
and
Klosterman, 2000).
Additionally,
the environmental aspects are defined ambiguously in the complex site
analysis
and selection process. Since the 1950s, various publications have presented
issues
and design
approaches aimed at environmental integration. Several frequently used terms,
such as
ecology, sustainability, green architecture, and renewable energy, are defined
as
follows:
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• Ecology, according to Webster’s New
Collegiate Dictionary, is defined as a
branch of
science concerned with the interrelationship or pattern of relations of
organisms
and their environments. It studies resource and energy management in
the
biosphere and its sub-categories. Zeiher (1996) argues that the balance of
ecology can
be influenced by the design and construction of architecture whether
or not
people respect the ecological concept.
• To understand sustainability, the
most widely quoted definition should be
introduced
first: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of
the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs”
(Brudtland, 1987, p.43). The sustainable design is an architectural
approach to
environmental, social, and economic issues of the individual and to
communities
that requires all three to work together now and in the future.
• Green architecture is a term used to
describe energy-efficient, environmentally-
friendly
buildings and developments by effectively managing natural resources.
Green
building principles encourage resource conservation, consider
environmental
impacts and waste minimization; build a healthy and comfortable
environment, reduce operation and maintenance costs, and address
community
infrastructure
issues
3
. The LEED
program developed by USGBC not only defines
the green
building idea but also measures the concept, the “greenness of a
building.”
• Renewable energy refers to energy
resources that occur naturally and repeatedly
in the environment and can benefit human activities.
Renewable energy systems
include
solar, wind, and geothermal energy. Trees and plants, rivers, and even
garbage are
also considered renewable energy resources.
Environmental
integration touches on all the above-mentioned aspects and integrates
elements
from each of them. Its fundamental principles emphasize the basic aspects of
the
natural environment, including climate, physiography,
hydrology, vegetation, and the lives of
the
inhabitants.
Some
researchers also look to ancient philosophy as both an alternative and
complement
to contemporary environmental design. Indigenous people used land to define
3
See DOE’s
Smart Communities Network Project at
http://www.sustainable.doe.gov/buildings/gbintro.shtml.
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their
existence and identity. For them “the trees, plants, animals, and fish, which
inhabit the
land are
not ‘natural resources,’ but highly personal beings which form part of their
social
and
spiritual universe” (Davis, 1993, p.1). Similarly, the ancient Chinese
developed feng
shui, an
evaluation system that examines the sites of cities and determines the
desirable
layouts of
buildings. It has been practiced for more than three thousand years in China.
Currently,
architects of several major projects in Western societies consider input from
the
feng shui
experts on architectural and interior design. However, even the Chinese, who
are
familiar
with ancient Eastern literature and philosophy, often have difficulty
understanding
basic feng
shui concepts and methods of application. Furthermore, the comparison between
contemporary
and traditional environmental design principles and the possible incorporation
of the two
are still not a common concern.
1.2
Objective
Statement
A review of
existing methods and computer tools shows that an integrated framework
for site
analysis and selection is currently needed, so that preferable building sites
can be
automatically
selected and a detailed analysis report generated. Any new methodology
should
consider the drawbacks of existing methods and computer tools. After a careful
reviewing
of the related research, this study will answer the following questions:
1. Can a
framework be defined to analyze site conditions in the design process?
a. What are
the commonalities for the understanding of the world through
architectural
design?
b. What are
the major components in the framework? What are the relations among
these
components?
c. What is
the relationship between site analysis and the entire architectural design
process?
2. What are
the environmental factors that should be considered?
a. In what
ways do feng shui and contemporary environmental design theories
intersect?
b. What
insights would a comparison between feng shui and contemporary
environmental
theory yield?
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c. How can
the environmental component in a site be implemented?
d. How will
the changes of the environmental factors influence other factors and the
structure
of the framework?
Thus, the
purpose of the research is to develop a framework for the evaluation and
selection
of the most desirable housing sites – those sites achieving a balance between
man
and nature,
the building and its surroundings. Within the structure of this framework, the
environmental
components will be explored in detail. We will identify the major factors,
compare
feng shui and contemporary principles, and emphasize the integration of
environmental
factors into architectural design. This framework will help designers and
developers
recognize the importance of the site as part of a holistic design process.
The
proposed methodology is based on several existing site analysis and selection
models. On
one hand, the research presented in this dissertation attempts to define a
framework
that can expand those models and incorporate each component in an organized
structure.
Thus, the framework will be a comprehensive structure, but will remain flexible
and open in
terms of its components. Impacts that are currently hard to define or estimate
could also
be added into the framework in the future. A quick analysis for a small site
may
only
involve a few components; a sophisticated estimate for a complicated project
may
include
more analyses. On the other hand, the implementation of the environmental
component
supports the proposed framework. Research on major factors within the
component
can help to clarify the definition of the environmental issues related to site
analysis
and building design. The component combines the environmental knowledge with
an
interface design. The computer simulation will demonstrate the decision-making
process,
as well as
provide useful information for designers and decision-makers.
The
following tasks will be needed to fulfill the research objective:
1. A study
of the design method and process;
2. A review
of principles and theories related to environmental design;
3.
Development of an integrated site analysis framework;
4. A review
of existing methods and tools;
5.
Implementation of the framework with a computer simulation program;
6.
Demonstration of the framework through data collection and analysis for the
study
site;
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7. A
discussion on results generated from the computer program.
1.3
Scope of
Research
This
research proposes a holistic site analysis framework for residential
development.
A review of
related literature shows that site analysis for program-determined projects
includes
physical inventory, biological inventory, cultural inventory, and analysis
(LaGro,
2001).
Common methods for programming, such as document analysis, behavioral
observation,
historical and current aerial photographs, and zoning maps, may also support
decision-making.
Figure 1-2 shows the overall framework of a site analysis model and the
scope of
this research. The highlighted boxes are the focal points. Among the many
components
of the overall framework, this research concentrates on environmental aspects,
as is shown
on box one of Figure 1-2. Regarding the environment,
the research collects and
analyzes
climatic, geologic, hydrologic, topographic, and vegetation information (boxes
two
and three,
Figure 1-2). More detailed analyses address the four correlated factors of
bioclimatic
design (box six, Figure 1-2), as well as four landform components: slope,
aspect
elevation,
and hillshade (box seven, Figure 1-2).
1.4
Research
Limitations
The work
utilizes knowledge and skills from multi-disciplinary subjects, a case study
using
Reston, Virginia, and computer programming implementation. Time restrictions
and
technical
limitations are raised through the research. In general, the longer the
collection
time for
data such as the climatological data, the more comprehensively and reliably the
data
will
reflect particular building sites. For this research, 45 weather stations
4
are located
in
240,000
acres, 32 times bigger than Reston, the study area, which is located in the
center of
the weather
stations. However, only a half of these weather stations were installed and
operated in
2001, which affects the interpolation
5
accuracy.
Thus, the collected climatic data
4
Weather
stations were provided by AWS, Inc.
5
Interpolation
is a term used in mathematics and GIS. It estimates unknown values by taking an
average of
known values
at neighbouring points.
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Environmental
Categories
Box 1
(category)
SITE
ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK
Biological
Categories
Physical
Categories
Social-cultural
Categories
Economical
Categories
Infrastructural
Categories
Box 2
category)
Vegetation
Box 3
(category)
Wildlife
Climate
Geology
Hydrology
Topography
Box 4
(category)
Land Use
Existing
Structures
Historic
Resources
Regulations
Box 5
(factor)
Trees
Native &
exotic
species
Wetlands
Box 6
(factor)
Temperature
Humidity
Radiation
Wind speed
&
direction
Rainfall
Snowfall
Box 9
(factor)
Soil
Structure
Dew point
Box 8
(factor)
Surface
water
Flooding
Water
quality
Box 7
(factor)
Slope
Aspect
Elevation
Scope of
research
Reference to
the factors in the
research
Beyond scope
of research
Hillshade
Wetlands
Surface
condition
Figure
1-2 Site analysis framework and scope of Research
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covers
different weather conditions throughout a year, from April 2002 to March 2003.
Although
the data only presents the weather conditions in a specific year, enough data
was
collected
to successfully calibrate the analysis framework and computer program
implementation.
Technical
limitations were experienced in three areas. First of all, the collected data
should give
a comprehensive representation of the physical conditions of Reston. However,
data
collected from the weather stations does not contain solar radiation
information. The
available
radiation information is produced by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) of
the U.S. Department of Energy
6
. It
compiles solar radiation data from five
stations in
Virginia. One of these, the Sterling station, is nine miles away from Reston;
and
the
Richmond station is 114 miles away. Therefore, hourly radiation data sets from
the
Sterling
station are used to complete the data sets from these 45 stations.
The second
limitation is the mapping size. The topography data provided by the
Fairfax
county GIS and Mapping department uses five-foot contour intervals. Because of
the
limited
calculation time and capacity of current computer technology, it is difficult
to
interpolate
the climatic data using the same grid size. Therefore, the climatic data is
interpolated
in a 50 ft. by 50 ft. grid. It is fine enough to analyze lot sites for
single-family
houses in
Reston, which range from 5000 sq.ft. to 87000 sq.ft.
7
.
Finally,
feng shui is historically applied to site selection of cities, towns and
villages,
buildings,
and tombs. However, this research only addresses the application of feng shui
to
buildings.
The implementation of feng shui is also based on the findings of other
researchers,
which summarize the fundamental feng shui principles and survey of historical
buildings.
Thus, the feng shui criteria used in this research will be limited in certain
areas.
1.5
Organization
of Dissertation
The
dissertation is presented in seven chapters. This chapter, Chapter One
(Introduction),
lays out background information, reviews existing methods and tools, and
6
More
information about solar radiation data can be found at
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/tmy2/
7
The number
is calculated from the zoning map of Reston with the residential district
regulations from Fairfax
country
government (http://www.co.fairfax.va.us/dpz/PDF_files/Ordinance/art03.pdf)
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addresses
research questions and objectives. It also discusses the scope and limitations
of the
research.
Chapter Two (Design Methods and Process) reviews the
basic concepts of design
problems, methods, and process. It also presents the
pertinent research on site analysis, and
discusses its position in the design process.
Chapter Three (Feng Shui and Contemporary
Environmental Design Principles)
reviews contemporary environmental design principles
and feng shui theories and
applications. It also compares feng shui to
contemporary environmental design principles.
Finally, it outlines the major environmental factors
that should be considered.
Chapter Four (A Site Analysis Framework) discusses the
concept, components, and
structures involved in an integrated site analysis
model. This chapter also highlights the
environmental factors in the framework, and describes
implementation strategies. Then, it
reviews existing methods and tools. Finally, this
chapter introduces the implementation of a
computer simulation tool, SiteOne.
Chapter Five (Case Study Using SiteOne in Reston)
presents the different collection
and analysis methods for climatic, topographical,
hydrological, and vegetation data. The
analysis procedures of the climatic data include
deriving overall hourly data from individual
local weather stations, generating temperature and
relative humidity data sets, interpolating
point data to grid data, and finally, applying comfort
zone criteria to these data sets. This
chapter also presents the analysis results from single
categories as well as the overall
outcome, which is based on SiteOne.
Chapter Six (Proof of Concept: Site Analysis by
Professionals) demonstrates how
professionals can use the proposed framework in site
analysis. This study also uses the
results from the interviews to validate the SiteOne
results. It summarizes the differences
between the interview results and the SiteOne results
and analyzes the possible causes of
these
discrepancies.
Chapter
Seven (Conclusion and Discussion) discusses the results presented in the
previous
chapters, and summarizes general concepts and guidelines for a comprehensive
site
analysis
framework. It also suggests future research that may extend the concept and
implementation
of the integrated site analysis framework.